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I tried to Google but Google doesn't understand me. I was wondering which seat a scientist has to be in to be the one who does the experiments. I am in a 2 seat capsule. Does Bob have to EVA to run the science? Jeb and Bob. What a pair!

Solar Science (SOL) Salutations! May the sunlight always be upon you! This science addon that adds two Deep Space Solar Experiments (STEREO and SOHO) to Kerbal Space Program. By zer0Kerbal, originally by Snoopy20111 adopted with express permission and brought to you by KerbSimpleCo Preamble by Snoopy20111 Remember to Praise the Sun! See More Discussions and news on this mod: See Discussions or KSP Forums Changelog Summary for more details of changes : See ChangeLog Known Issues for more details of feature requests and known issues : See Known Issues GitHub Pages : See Pages Youtube review by Kottabos Gaming Help Wanted Localization Installation Directions 1 Use CurseForge/OverWolf App (currently does not install dependencies) Whilst I agree CKAN is a great mod for those that can't use zip tools. I take no part, nor am I interested in maintaining the CKAN mod metadata for my mods. Please don't ask me about it but refer to the CKAN mod thread if you are having issues with CKAN or the metadata it maintains. Beware, CKAN can really mess up though it tries very, very, very hard not to. or Dependencies Kerbal Space Program 2 Suggests Biomatic (BIO) Biome identification, notification, tracking, and warp stopping. Kaboom! (BOOM) Another way to not go to space today! GPO (Goo Pumps & Oils') Speed Pump (GPO) On Demand Fuel Cells (ODFC) ProbiTronics (PT) Supports Either 3 Module Manager Module Manager /L Contract Configurator red box below is a link to forum post on how to get support Be Kind: Lithobrake, not jakebrake! Keep your Module Manager up to date Credits and Special Thanks Snoopy20111 for creating this glorious addon! see Attribution.md for more comprehensive list Legal Mumbo Jumbo (License provenance) How to support this and other great mods by zer0Kerbal Connect with me Track progress: issues here and projects here along with The Short List Footnotes this isn't a mod. ;P ↩ may work on other versions (YMMV) ↩ Be Kind: Lithobrake, not jakebrake! Keep your Module Manager up to date! ↩

I think what would make interstellar travel really cool, or what can be a great to set up for it, would be the inclusions of space telescopes in KSP2. Think about sending up a shuttle with something like the Hubble Space Telescope in the payload bay, and have that go on to discover star systems like Debdeb. Not just that, but also have the ability to service and upgrade it later down the line on orbit by conducting EVAs, like on STS-61 or STS-125. Obviously, that statement holds true for something like Hubble. If they player wants to do a mission like Kuiper or James Webb, that should also be an option. It can be a very cool way to conduct science experiments, and get points needed to upgrade the tech tree in KSP2. It can also give the player incentive to try a mission that they have not done before, and can be relatively easy-ish to pull off. I can imagine something like Hubble or the James Webb Space Telescope being instrumental for progression in a future patch when we get closer and closer to interstellar travel.

Sensor Modules (SENS) Hot Beverage Inc serves up some steaming Sensor Modules straight from the irradiating oven. By zer0Kerbal, originally by @Ph34rb0t adopted with express permission and brought to you by KerbSimpleCo Preamble by Ph34rb0t See more Help Wanted Localization Installation Directions 1 Dependencies Hot Beverage Inc (HBI) agency, flags, and common files Kerbal Space Program 2 Suggests Hot Beverage Inc (HBI) Irradiated Parts (HBEx) experimental parts HBFuelCells (FUEL) Fuel Cells Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators (RTG) Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators Kerturn (KAT) Sensor Modules (SENS) Sensor Modules (SENS) Biomatic (BIO) Field Training Facility (FTF) Field Training Lab (FTL) GPO (Goo Pumps & Oils') Speed Pump (GPO) Kaboom! (BOOM) On Demand Fuel Cells (ODFC) OScience Laboratories (OSL) Papa Kerballini's Pizza (PIZZA) SimpleConstruction! (SCON) SimpleLife! (LIFE) SimpleLogistics! (SLOG) SimpleNotes! (NOTE) Solar Science (SOL) TweakScale Supports Irradiated Parts (HBEx) Fuel Cells (FUEL) Stack Fuel Cells Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators (RTG) Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators Kerturn (KAT) Sensor Modules (SENS) Sensor Modules (SENS) Either Module Manager /L 3 Module Manager 4 Tags agency, flag, config red box below is a link to forum post on how to get support Be Kind: Lithobrake, not jakebrake! Keep your Module Manager up to date Credits and Special Thanks @Ph34rb0tfor creating these glorious parts! see Attribution for more comprehensive list Legal Mumbo Jumbo (License provenance) DONATIONS How to support this and other great mods by zer0Kerbal Connect with me Track progress: issues here and projects here along with The Short List Release Schedule this isn't a mod. ;P↩︎ may work on other versions (YMMV)↩︎ Be Kind: Lithobrake, not jakebrake! Keep your Module Manager up to date!↩︎

Interkosmos - Science Parts for KSP - Interkosmos includes 6 Science parts inspired by real experiment : Photopolarimeter, Photometer, Hydrometer, IR Spectrometer, GasAnalyzer, Crystallisation Facility The Crystallisation Facility is also a Crystals Generator, with electricity and time the part could produce 50 Crystals Unit (new resource). When you recover the part full of crystals, you win 5000 Really helpful for career! Download: Spacedock / Github Development considered completed, this mod will not receive new parts. Licence : Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) Changelog : Graphic Patch made by @DiscoSlelge Tweakscale Compatibility patch made by @hraban Translations : English / French

InSight Lander (INSIGHT) The Interior Exploration using Seismic Investigations, Geodesy and Heat Transport (InSight) robotic lander by Klockheed Martian for Kerbal Space Program. By zer0Kerbal, originally by @Matheo G adopted with express permission and brought to you by KerbSimpleCo See more Help Wanted Localization Installation Directions 1 Dependencies Kerbal Space Program 2 Klockheed Martian Ltd (KM/L) Suggests GPO (Goo Pumps & Oils') Speed Pump (GPO) Kaboom (BOOM) On Demand Fuel Cells (ODFC) TweakScale (TWK) Other mods by Matheo G New Shepard (NSHPD) TESS Ariane 6 (S3L) InSight Lander (INSIGHT) Supports Either 3 Module Manager /L Module Manager Tags parts, config red box below is a link to forum post on how to get support Be Kind: Lithobrake, not jakebrake! Keep your Module Manager up to date Credits and Special Thanks @Matheo G for creating this glorious parts addon! see Attribution.md for more comprehensive list Legal Mumbo Jumbo (License provenance) DONATIONS Connect with me Track progress: issues here and projects here along with The Short List Release Schedule this isn't a mod. ;P↩︎ may work on other versions (YMMV)↩︎ Be Kind: Lithobrake, not jakebrake! Keep your Module Manager up to date!↩︎

So im doing a playthrough with usi lifesupport and was too afraid to go outside of kerbins sphere of influence and decided to get all possible sciences from minmus to get some good engines but came home with this: Fair to say that this game is totally balanced lol. (not really a disscussion or topic but it would be cool to see your massive science hauls)

OScience Laboratories (OSL) Science parts addon consisting of seven science experiments, one science lab, and five novel science experiments for Kerbal Space Program. By zer0Kerbal, originally by @pizzaguy adopted and brought to you by KerbSimpleCo Forward from pizzaguy Included Parts: Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer Electrostatic Analyzer Pee Experiment Atmospheric scoop Radio Decay Science Lab Sonic Emitter See More Help Wanted Localization Installation Directions 1 Dependencies Kerbal Space Program 2 Suggests Biomatic (BIO) Field Training Facility (FTF) Field Training Lab (FTL) GPO (Goo Pumps & Oils') Speed Pump (GPO) Kaboom! (BOOM) On Demand Fuel Cells (ODFC) Papa Kerballini's Pizza (PIZZA) Supports TweakScale (TWK) Either 3 Module Manager /L Module Manager Tags science, parts, flags, agent red box below is a link to forum post on how to get support Be Kind: Lithobrake, not jakebrake! Keep your Module Manager up to date Credits and Special Thanks @pizzaguy for creating this glorious science parts addon! see Attribution.md for more comprehensive list Legal Mumbo Jumbo (License provenance) DONATIONS Connect with me Release Schedule this isn't a mod. ;P↩︎ may work on other versions (YMMV)↩︎ Be Kind: Lithobrake, not jakebrake! Keep your Module Manager up to date!

Papa Kerballinis Pizza (PIZZA) Papa Kerballini's Pizza - A Pizza Science Experiment in SPACE! Ever wanted to have the luxury of pizza while in sub-orbital flight? Now you can! By zer0Kerbal, originally by link5505 adopted with express permission and brought to you by KerbSimpleCo Included Parts: Is it pizza or is it Little Keazer? See More See our Parts Catalog for part pictures For more images, see our Marketing Slicks Discussions and news on this mod: See Discussions or KSP Forums Changelog Summary for more details of changes: See ChangeLog Known Issues for more details of feature requests and known issues : See Known Issues GitHub Pages : See Pages Help Wanted Localization Installation Directions 1 Dependencies Kerbal Space Program 2 Supports On Demand Fuel Cells (ODFC) GPO (Goo Pumps & Oils') Speed Pump (GPO) Either 3 Module Manager Module Manager /L Tags science, parts, flags, agent red box below is a link to forum post on how to get support Be Kind: Lithobrake, not jakebrake! Keep your Module Manager up to date Credits and Special Thanks link5505 for creating this glorious science parts addon! see Attribution.md for more comprehensive list Legal Mumbo Jumbo (License provenance) DONATIONS: How to support this and other great mods by zer0Kerbal and it is true. Connect with me Track progress: issues here and projects here along with The Short List this isn't a mod. ;P↩︎ may work on other versions (YMMV)↩︎ Be Kind: Lithobrake, not jakebrake! Keep your Module Manager up to date!↩︎

Screenshots: Trailer KSP 0.22 ! source of inspiration for Kraken Science. This Part pack include many Science parts with report values: 2 Probe Core, LittleFrog and ScaRaB system with 1 monopropellant engine : 2 Strategies for your career: Download: SpaceDock Development considered completed, this mod will not receive new parts. Licence : Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) Installation : Please delete your old Folder before update! ChangeLog: -------------------------------------------------------- I'm French, sorry for my bad english, thanks. If modders detect faults and wishes to use has the correction, to contact I by mp, thank you!

Science experiments:

Current version: 2.5 for KSP 1.12.2 License: CC Attribution Share Alike 4.0 International ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I've been using this part for a while now since the stock one is way too big for some rovers and pods and I don't like to take up so much space to return multiple copies of an experiment. Any way I searched all over for something that would work, and this is all I was able to find, and it was way out of date and did not function with 1.5.1. The mod was originally made by Talisar but he has not been around for a very long time and the license grants me the write to continue to work on it so here it is in case someone else has the same needs I do. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- v 2.5 (12/15/2021) - Updated for KSP 1.12.2 v 2.0 (06/04/2020) - Added the ability to "collect all" science from the vessel the container is attached to by right clicking on the container. - Added "Collect All" to the action group abilities. v 1.0.3 (06/02/2020 - Updated for KSP v 1.9.1 v 1.0.2 (12/20/2018 - Updated for KSP v1.6 v 1.0 (12/03/2018) - Reconfigured folder structure and updated all cfg files for KSP v1.5.1 Available on CKAN Download from Spacedock

So I was looking for new launching sites in my career mode, therefore I launched a recon satellite to polar orbit around Kerbin, and while watched as the planet rotates under me, on the Kerbnet I picked up an anomaly signal, not so far from the Northern Pole, on the Ice Shelf. So I built a long-range plane and flew there to find out, what is it could be. What a big surprise!

Portable Science Crate (PSC) Useful for storing all the EVA gathered science on the fly. Can be sent back home on a probe without distracting the Kerbal from his other planetary activities. Serves the same purpose as the Stock Science Box. Great for rovers with External Command Seats and for small pods from other mods which deliberately don't have science storage in them. Requires KIS for the best experience. By zer0Kerbal, originally by @Enceos adopted with express permission and brought to you by KerbSimpleCo Description by @Enceos See More See our Parts Catalog for part pictures For more images, see our Marketing Slicks Discussions and news on this mod: See Discussions or KSP Forums Changelog Summary for more details of changes : See ChangeLog Known Issues for more details of feature requests and known issues : See Known Issues GitHub Pages : See Pages Help Wanted Localization Installation Directions 1 Use CurseForge/OverWolf App (currently does not install dependencies) Whilst I agree CKAN is a great mod for those that can't use zip tools. I take no part, nor am I interested in maintaining the CKAN mod metadata for my mods. Please don't ask me about it but refer to the CKAN mod thread if you are having issues with CKAN or the metadata it maintains. Beware, CKAN can really mess up though it tries very, very, very hard not to. When I make a serious save / mod breaking change, CKAN will happily update you without you ever seeing a changelog. This means you could happily load your save, not notice the major version number has changed, and seriously break something. I do not like this. So CKAN users must use Kerbal Changelog, because that way nobody can say they weren't warned :). or Dependencies Kerbal Space Program 2 Kerbal Hacks Ltd(KH/L) Suggests Also by KerbalHacks Drop Tank Wrapper (DROP) Portable Science Crate (PSC) Supports On Demand Fuel Cells (ODFC) GPO (Goo Pumps & Oils') Speed Pump (GPO) Kerbal Inventory System (KIS) Kerbal Attachment System (KAS) Either 3 Module Manager Module Manager /L Tags parts, resources red box below is a link to forum post on how to get support Be Kind: Lithobrake, not jakebrake! Keep your Module Manager up to date Credits and Special Thanks @Enceos for creating this glorious parts addon! @RoverDude for the original part see Attribution.md for more comprehensive list Legal Mumbo Jumbo (License provenance) DONATIONS: How to support this and other great mods by zer0Kerbal and it is true. Connect with me Track progress: issues here and projects here along with The Short List this isn't a mod. ;P↩︎ may work on other versions (YMMV)↩︎ Be Kind: Lithobrake, not jakebrake! Keep your Module Manager up to date!↩︎

I've been playing out a potential abstract version of the game in my mind, taking into account some possible tech progression and exploration inventive elements that have been hinted. Let's assume there's no boring abstract system of farmable science points. Every tech "unlocks" automatically for you depending on three things: - if you did the science experiments for the tech - if you found / harvested the resources necessary - if your level of knowledge and discoveries is sufficiently advanced (every part could have hidden milestone triggers that unlock it) Let's also assume that we obtain useful information about the universe only through practical science (ground and space telescope, sending probes, doing experiments etc.). This information then allows us to design more complex successful missions. Let's also assume that the progression also favors unmanned before manned missions, as it should. And that kerbals need life support because manned missions are damn hard. And that there are good incentives to build space stations (science, mining asteroid resources, and orbital construction etc.) and colonies (science, discovery of planetary points of interest, transportation infrastructure, resource mining etc.). Let's assume that we need to build and upgrade the communications network. Let's assume we have to explore and exploit the Kerbolar system first, then investigate other stars, exoplanets, build the necessary knowledge and material infrastructure that allows us to design interstellar ships and send them hurling into space. Then we get there and start over. Let's also assume we take into account the long and slow process of prototyping, testing and iterative design. And the accidents. And the story / lore / mysteries / Easter eggs. Well, my worry is this: it's a damn huge amount of work even without any grinding! It makes me afraid for my adult and family life! Who is going to be able to do everything in this game, in a gratifying slow and methodical way, with all the difficulty settings and optional systems turned on? This game is going to take us years to go through. How is there going to be time to explore multiplayer features if we start with single player only? I really think multiplayer has to be baked in or directly linked with the single player adventure. I see no other way to put everything in this game and still allow players to try it all.

Quick explanation: Sidereal time vs solar time. Above left: a distant star (the small orange star) and the Sun are at culmination, on the local meridian m. Centre: only the distant star is at culmination (there has been a mean sidereal day since above left). Right: a few minutes later the Sun is on the local meridian again. There has been a solar day since above left. (from Wikipedia) As you can see, the sidereal day is the time that a planet takes to do exactly one rotation around its rotation axis, whereas the solar day is the time between the moment of two consecutive days when the Sun (or the planet's star) is the higher in the sky. So the question is, how do you calculate the length of the sidereal day of a planet, if we know the length of its year in days (Earth is 365.26 days) and the length of its day? Try to guess! Also please put your explanations, if you post any, in spoilers.

Hi guys. This time I made a video of visiting all biomes on Dres and making 10M science. Enjoy the video:) Please subscribe if you liked it and enjoy my other videos!

This is from my latest blog post: http://toughsf.blogspot.com/2022/03/fusion-without-fissiles-superbombs-and.html Fusion technology today relies on expensive, building-sized equipment for ignition, or the help of an already powerful fission detonation. What if we could do away with both? Fusion power without the need for fissiles, but also small enough to be launched into space. It is possible, and eventually it will be practical. Let’s look at how that would work and its implications. The lead image is artwork commissioned from the talented Daemoria on the ToughSF Discord. It features a spacecraft powered by an Orion-type nuclear pulse propulsion system refueling using the ices of an asteroid deep in the Outer Solar System. Click to zoom in! Too big to launch The point of convergence of all the National Ignition Facility's 192 lasers. Fusion research today focuses on igniting small quantities of deuterium and tritium using the concentrated energy of lasers, magnetic fields, plasma jets or particle beams. This puts the fuel in conditions far more intense than the core of our Sun, which is enough to ignite the nuclear reaction. However, the total amount of energy being handled is not all that great. The latest record-breaking fusion attempt at the National Ignition Facility added 1.8 MegaJoules of energy in the form of a laser pulse to a tiny gold Hohlraum containing a few milligrams of frozen fuel. Only 150 kiloJoules was actually absorbed by the fuel. From this, the fusion fuel yielded 1.3 MJ, or 8.6 times the input. The energies involved here are equivalent to the kinetic energy of a small truck at highway speeds or the heat released by burning about 50 milliliters of gasoline. Even if we include the total electrical input of the NIF facility during the attempt, 422 MJ (mainly due to the ridiculously low 0.8% efficiency of the lasers), then we are talking about equivalent to the kinetic energy of a medium-sized passenger jet on takeoff or the explosives in a Mark 82 bomb. It is more than we usually encounter in everyday life, but within reach with a little effort. The full NIF facility houses 7680 xenon flash lamps and 3072 glass slab lasers. The NIF cost $3.5 billion to build and spans at least 300 meters. It probably weighs thousands of tons. All just to deliver 150 kJ to a tiny ball of DT. Sure, a more efficient laser and a more compact arrangement of the components could be used, but it is clear that existing fusion technology cannot fit inside the size and mass constraints of modern space launch capabilities. Even the upcoming SpaceX Starship, a superheavy lift vehicle, can only accommodate 100 ton payloads that are less than 8 meters wide. There is a gap of several orders of magnitude between the two. So how do we move fusion technology into space? Stars in small boxes There is an easy path and a hard path to placing fusion technology in space. We are on the hard path. It involves progressing our current technological development of ignition methods to the point where the equipment needed for fusion ignition becomes lightweight and manages an input-to-output energy ratio (the fusion gain factor) by two orders of magnitude. For example, we could look at the Gradient Field Imploding Liner concept. This design pushes 50 tons of payload to Mars using a 1.2 GW fusion drive. It uses a novel method for ignition (an imploding lithium liner shot through a magnetic coil of over 20 Tesla) that produces a fusion gain factor of 982. After adding up the mass of the equipment needed to generate electricity from the fusion reaction (to power the ignition process) and radiators to remove waste heat, it ends up with a fantastic power density of over 10 kW per kg. A single Starship launch of 100 tons would be able to deliver a reactor with an output of 1 GigaWatt if fusion technology achieved that performance. That’s enough to tend to the needs of over a million people. However, these advances are a long way away. It will require immense effort and research investment over the course of several decades to even come close to these figures. What about the easy path? The 15 Megaton yield Castle Bravo test. Fusion reactions have been produced easily and in small packages since the 1950s in thermonuclear bombs. The shortcut here is to create the necessary conditions for igniting fusion fuel using the awesome power of another nuclear reaction: fission. It is much easier to extract energy from unstable uranium or plutonium isotopes. It can be as simple as bringing enough of these substances together in one place. The only challenge that remains is to channel that energy into the fusion fuel - an idea first proposed by Enrico Fermi that resulted in the Teller-Ulam design that used the radiation from a fission stage (the primary) to implode a fusion stage (the secondary). From a physics perspective, it is very elegant: it turns a hard problem (igniting fusion) into two easy problems (igniting fission, then transferring the energy). From a practical perspective, it is terrifying. Any plane or rocket that could lift a few hundred kilograms had its destructive capability upgraded to levelling an entire city. The W56 warhead weighs only 272 kg but manages a yield of 1.2 million tons (megatons) of TNT. The incredible yield-to-weight ratios of nuclear warheads. ICBMs have carried these thermonuclear warheads into space, but not into orbit. These missiles cannot achieve orbital velocity, but only because it is not necessary and not because it is impossible. Their deltaV capability is about 6 to 7 km/s and they would need an additional stage to achieve the necessary 9 km/s for Low Earth Orbit. Incidentally, this is how we got the Soyuz rocket; by adding an extra stage to the R-7 ICBM. Thermonuclear weapons have been tested in space. The most famous example is the Starfish Prime shot. A W49 warhead with a yield of 1.4 megatons was detonated at an altitude of 400 km. The Starfish Prime test of 1962. A naïve calculation would find that a SpaceX Starship could be filled with W56 warheads and hold a combined yield equivalent to 441 megatons of TNT. The previous 1 GW reactor would have to work for 58 years to match the energy these warheads could release in microseconds. It is not so straightforward though. Thermonuclear warheads have many downsides that prevent them from being an acceptable fusion technology in space. The first is their minimum size. The fusion reaction must be initiated by a fission reaction, which requires a critical mass of fissile material. In the smallest warheads, this is brought down to a few kilograms, resulting in a minimum yield of roughly 42 GJ or 10 tons of TNT. A warhead at this scale is extremely wasteful in its use of fissile material. The smallest design that actually liberates a good fraction of its potential energy would release 4,200 GJ or 1000 tons of TNT. Funnily enough, it obtains this from the same amount of fissile material but with a much larger and more complex compression scheme. A fusion stage on top would need to release a multiple of this yield (10 to 20 times more) to be worth its inclusion. A propulsion system that uses thermonuclear bombs would have trouble if it were hammered by pulses with a yield equivalent to tens of thousands of tons of TNT. A nozzle or pusher plate that receives this blast would be immense, and the suspension system needed to translate the pulses into a continuous acceleration would bring us back to the building-sized equipment we are trying to avoid in the first place. The second is their need for fissile material. It is in fact the biggest problem with producing thermonuclear warheads. Today, it means that they need a highly controlled substance, which is enriched uranium or plutonium. It is expensive, difficult to manufacture, easily weaponizable and dangerous if accidentally dispersed. Political considerations and social fears have already prevented the launch of much milder nuclear propulsion system, in the form of Nuclear Thermal Rockets, and ruled out designs like the Orion nuclear pulse propulsion rocket by international law. Even in a fictional setting or alternate-future where these concerns are minimized, there is still the logistical problem of sustaining the use of these materials. The Midnite mine. Uranium is only found in high concentrations on Earth thanks to the action of the terrestrial water cycle. Dry surfaces like the Moon or small bodies like asteroids have their uranium dispersed within them at concentrations similar to the primordial composition of our Solar System. Instead of mining rich veins for uranium at 200,000 parts per million, settlers on Venus or Ceres would be sifting through vast quantities of rock to extract less than 2 parts per million. Map of uranium on the Moon. That’s 5 grams per cubic meter of rock. Worse, only 0.7% of this uranium is of the desired U235 isotope, so only 35 milligrams of enriched material would go towards the thermonuclear warhead. The rest would have to go through a laborious burnup and transmutation process inside breeder reactors. If the minimum critical mass is about 2 kilograms, then over 57,000m^3 of rock would need to be processed for each thermonuclear pulse. A rocket that uses these pulses for propulsion may need thousands of pulse units to complete a trip… it is clearly unsustainable! Deuterium/Hydrogen ratios in the Solar System The fusion fuel is a minor concern in comparison. Deuterium is abundant in all waters of the solar system at 312 parts per million (0.312 grams per kg), and can be higher in the outer solar system. Deuterium concentration was 3 times higher in the samples returned from the comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko than on Earth. It can be melted out of the ices of a comet and separated by electrolysis. Tritium is trickier to obtain, but it can be manufactured out of lithium, which is a rather common element. It decays with a half-life of 12 years but with the speed of fusion propulsion, most trips will be completed well before then. Helium 3 is very rare in comparison, but obtaining it is still possible from the lunar surface or by scooping up the atmospheres of Venus or the gas giants. Filtering gases is a much easier task than digging through kilometers of rock after all. Going by the abundance of their fuels, we would want to use Deuterium-Deuterium fusion, then Deuterium-Tritium, then Deuterium-Helium 3. Pure Fusion A hemispherical implosion test device. The solution is to find a way to use a simple non-nuclear energy source, and concentrate it in a way that can ignite a fusion reaction but without the need for complex or heavy machinery to serve as an intermediary. Fusion, without the ‘dirty’ fissile aspect. This is the ‘pure fusion’ concept that has long been on the minds of scientists since the first fusion bomb was tested. It found renewed interest ahead of and following the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty in 1996. Some of the methods for achieving pure fusion ignition, especially by Soviet and then Russian scientists, were tested in the 1990s and 2000s in collaboration with LANL. It might be because they feared that they might not have access to the multiple billion dollar investment needed to pursue conventional ignition research. More recent concepts have appeared too. Interest in them has waned since fusion research has become a well funded international effort, like JET and NIF. 'The Gadget' from the Manhattan project. This is a prickly topic to discuss with any nuclear scientist today. The design of a pure fusion device overlaps significantly with that of a regular nuclear warhead. Discussing this topic in detail with the general public generally goes against the rules they have to follow to retain their security clearances. They might inadvertently reveal facts or figures they are not allowed to share, even for far off speculation like this. It is wise to not test their patience. Nuclear weapons after all threaten human civilization on one hand, and offer absolute protection against invasion or loss of sovereignty on the other. Aggressive posturing by small and otherwise weak states like North Korea is only possible because they have incredible destructive power at their disposal. The proliferation of nuclear weapons weakens the protection they offer to existing holders while increasing the risk that they are deployed by someone who doesn’t have much to lose. Anything that threatens to share nuclear power to a wider group is therefore taken very seriously. Pure fusion technology could be considered to be one such proliferation concern. The creation of nuclear weapons that circumvent the most effective anti-proliferation control, which is access to fissile material, could destabilize the relations between nuclear states. Global annihilation would come closer. More specifically, it is a restriction on the enrichment of uranium from 99.3% U238 into >90% U235 (or into Pu239). Uranium gas centrifuges for U235 enrichment. Natural uranium cannot be made into a bomb, and it is regularly shipped around the world by the hundreds of tons to feed nuclear reactors. It would be practically impossible to restrict access to it. ‘Reactor grade’ uranium, which is enriched to less than 5% U235, won’t work either. Climbing up to ‘weapons grade’ is a long and arduous process that requires gas centrifuges that take up several football fields and many megawatts of electricity. The machinery is delicate and needs trained personnel to run… even moderate damage or a cyber attack can take them down. India's Bhabha Atomic Research Centre reactor. The other route, which is to operate a reactor specifically designed to produce Plutonium 239, is also difficult to hide, but it has been successful in the past. Pure fusion ignition does not need enriched uranium. There is discussion around how the technology could destabilize the current nuclear arms balance, especially since the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty left open the door to conventional ignition research and therefore there is a legal ground for the development of alternate ignition schemes. However, as we will calculate later, pure fusion devices cannot result in weapons with the same destructive potential as actual nuclear warheads. They might have an effect on warfare at the tactical scale but not really at the strategic level. Still, there is a real possibility that these designs will be developed seriously in the future, for military purposes or not. They have advantages that are not useful today but might be critical for a space settlement at the edge of the Solar System. Looking into these pure fusion concepts can help inform us about their future potential in propulsion, energy generation and elsewhere. We will look at two plausible concepts for igniting a pure fusion device. The first is Magnetized Target Fusion using explosive-driven flux generators. The second is Multi-Stage High Explosive-driven Implosion Fusion. To these documented concepts we will add invented variants based on other speculative technologies that have been demonstrated in some way or another. Magnetized Target Fusion using Explosive-driven Flux Generators A helical explosive-driven flux generator design for the MAGO experiments. Explosive-driven Flux Generators are able to convert the chemical potential of a high explosive (HE) into a powerful magnetic pulse. This is done by first creating a strong magnetic field by running an electrical current from a small capacitor through a number of conducting disks (Disk Explosive Magnetic Generator or DEMG) or coils (Helical Explosive Magnetic Generator or HEMG). The detonation of a high explosive compresses these conducting structures into a smaller and smaller volume, which magnifies the electrical current and multiplies the initial magnetic field to several hundred tesla. These steps can be staged, with the magnetic field produced by the first compression being multiplied again by a second compression. The Tsar Bomba was developed at the Russian VNIIEF. Experiments at the Russian VNIIEF (All-Russian Scientific Research Institute of Experimental Physics) demonstrated a 20 to 25% conversion of high explosive energy into magnetic energy, with electrical currents on the order of 100 MegaAmperes producing magnetic fields of 200 Tesla strength. It should be noted that actual efficiency is likely much higher (1.5x times higher, so in the 30-40% range) but only a fraction of the total output is delivered at a useful rate, as explained in the Efficiencies section in this document. There is also an explanation that these results are from designs that did not really require high explosive-to-magnetic efficiency, and that instead of 70% is possible with end-initiated coaxial generators. A DEMG with 3 modules, containing disks a meter wide, was shown to deliver 100 MJ of energy and an electrical current of 256 MA, and it is possible to stack 25 of these modules and maybe more. DEMGs tested at the VNIIEF. These powerful magnetic pulses can be used to drive Magnetized Target Fusion (MTF). In this ignition scheme, fusion fuel is first heated into a ‘warm’ plasma, and then it is rapidly compressed by imploding a spherical metal shell (the liner). The shell implodes because of the powerful magnetic pulse we have created using a flux generator. It achieves a substantial velocity of several tens of kilometers per second, enough to raise the pressure and temperature of the plasma trapped inside to fusion ignition conditions. Almost all the fusion energy that is then released is absorbed by the metal shell, causing it to vaporize and expand as a plasma explosion, which can be redirected for thrust or absorbed to generate electricity. MTF has been demonstrated successfully several times with actual fusion neutrons being detected. The biggest current project aiming to use MTF is General Fusion. General Fusion's piston-compressed MTF scheme. It has many advantages over achieving fusion using conventional means. The pressure it can achieve far exceeds anything a tokamak can manage by using static (non-pulsed) magnetic fields, which really helps push fusion fuel particles together. The implosion velocity is much lower than the several hundreds of km/s that need to be achieved at the NIF or most other inertial confinement fusion schemes and it receives that energy far more efficiently than could be managed by a laser or particle beam blasting away at a pellet of frozen fusion fuel. However, it has its own set of challenges and far less investment in its development than the other ignition methods. For our purposes, we are looking at the following chain of events: HE -> Flux Generator -> Metal Liner -> Fusion Ignition -> Fusion Output Each arrow has a certain efficiency figure associated with it. The only source of energy input is the high explosive, and the only source of energy output is from the fusion reaction. There are some small steps we are omitting here, like losses to electrical switching or the initial heating of the fusion fuel, but they are far smaller (kJ scale) than the energies involved in the main steps (MJ scale). The objective is to have a far greater fusion output than the HE energy input. The MAGO plasma chamber. The VNIIEF’s MAGO project (MAGnitnoye Obzhatiye or magnetic compression) found that if the metal liner had a kinetic energy of 65 MJ and imploded at 20 km/s, it could get 8.9 milligrams of deuterium-tritium plasma pre-heated to 1 million Kelvin to undergo fusion and release 1 GJ of energy. Deuterium-Tritium reactions have an output of 340 TeraJoules per kilogram. The full potential of the 8.9 milligrams of fuel is 3.03 GJ. This means that the implosion got 33% of the fuel to undergo fusion (also called the burnup ratio). The result is a ‘fusion gain’ of 16x. They based these results on experiments with 200 MJ flux generators creating >1000 Tesla fields adding up to 25 MJ into the metal liners. If we assume that 25% of the high explosive’s energy can be converted into magnetic energy, and that 60% of the magnetic HE is around 5 MJ/kg for denser compositions like ‘PBX 9501’, so working backwards, it would take 86.6 kg of HE to deliver 433 MJ as energy input, that gets converted into 108.25 MJ of magnetic energy, which results in 65 MJ of metal liner kinetic energy. The final output is 1000 MJ, giving a return on energy investment of 2.3 times. Component weights for a DEMG-powered pure fusion device. Other estimates in this document’s appendix B suggest that a multi-stage device with a plasma chamber would fit 320 kg of HE inside 3400 kg of equipment to be able to deliver 100 MJ to a metal liner that compresses up to 30 milligrams of DT fuel. The fusion output is 10 GJ, which is a 33% burnup ratio. The performance of the flux generators is pessimistic, with only 6% of the 1600 MJ chemical potential in the HE actually being delivered to the plasma chamber. That means a return on energy investment of 6.25 times. The majority of the mass is dedicated to a 2000 kg DEMG device. In the footnotes, it is explained as a necessarily conservative estimate, far greater than the minimum amount of copper wires needed for simply conducting the electrical current. In fact, it seems like the masses of all the explosive flux generators have been estimated by multiplying the mass of the explosive they contain by a factor 10. There are few other figures to rely upon for further speculation. Nonetheless, we can put together the data we have to obtain a ‘reasonable’ MTF design that is powered by high explosives. We’ll call this the Early EMG-MTF device. Early EMG-MTF Total mass: 1600 kg HE mass: 100 kg HE energy: 500 MJ HE-to-magnetic efficiency: 25% Magnetic energy: 125 MJ Magnetic-to-kinetic efficiency: 60% Liner kinetic energy: 75 MJ DT fuel: 22.5 milligrams DT burnup: 33% Fusion output: 2.52 GJ Average energy density: 1.57 MJ/kg This design is admittedly not very powerful. 2.52 GJ of fusion output might sound like a lot, but it is only a 5 times return on energy invested. It is also important to look at the average energy density of the device. It is much less powerful than the same mass of simple HE, so it would be a terrible weapon and even worse propulsion system - for comparison, a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen in a rocket engine has an average energy density of 15 MJ/kg. It actually compares poorly to lithium-ion batteries, which is laughable for a thermonuclear reaction. Comparison of the huge structures need to provide an electrical pulse with capacitors or high explosives. Technology is expected to improve. If we conceived of this technology today instead of in 1998, we should hope to get better results. This can include the use of stronger materials, aluminium conductors instead of copper wires or even high temperature superconductors, better HE compositions and perhaps a different explosive flux generator design that comes closer to the 70% HE-to-magnetic efficiency mentioned previously. These would all lead to a lighter device. It is unlikely to fall below 2x the weight of the explosives, because the HE needs to push against something to transfer its momentum efficiently, but a reduction from 10x to 5x the weight is plausible. More explosive flux generator configurations. Today’s MTF schemes also aim for much higher fusion gain ratios. Tricks to improve the efficiency of the reaction, such as turning the initial warm fuel plasma into a field reversed configuration that is self-containing and prevents heat losses by touching the imploding metal liner too early, can be used. General Fusion’s initial Acoustic MTF concept had pistons compressing a plasma, with 14 MJ being delivered to the plasma in the final step. This was enough to release 704 MJ of fusion energy, which is a fusion gain of 50 times. We can work out that they use 10 milligrams of fusion fuel with each shot, and that the burnup ratio they assume is 20%. The Fusion Driven Rocket's magneto-inertial ignition concept. John Slough’s Fusion-Driven Rocket uses a type of Magnetized Target Fusion where the metal liner is made of lithium and receives a kinetic energy of 2.8 MJ. In return, it provides a fusion gain of 200. This is far above the fusion gains mentioned previously. There are hotspot ignition schemes that can attain fusion gain ratios in the thousands by starting a burn wave in a much larger quantity of fuel, but let’s not be excessively optimistic. If we assume that these promises will be fulfilled, then we can guess at the performance of an EMG-MTF built to an advanced technology standard. Advanced EMG-MTF Total mass: 500 kg HE mass: 100 kg HE energy: 500 MJ HE-to-magnetic efficiency: 70% Magnetic energy: 350 MJ Magnetic-to-kinetic efficiency: 60% Liner kinetic energy: 210 MJ DT fuel: 150 milligrams DT burnup: 33% Fusion output: 16.8 GJ Average energy density: 33.66 MJ/kg We get a much more interesting device. It is 6.7 times more powerful than HE on its own and exceeds the performance of any chemical reaction. But even these improved figures are nowhere near the power of a conventional nuclear warhead which manages energy densities on the order of 10,000,000 MJ/kg. Multi-Stage High Explosive-driven Implosion Fusion This approach attempts to ignite a fusion reaction by imploding the fuel without using a flux generator as an intermediary. High explosives press directly against a metal sphere to cause it to implode into fusion ignition conditions. Normally, this is impossible. HE is powerful and their detonation velocity ranges from 7 km/s to over 10 km/s. The Gurney Equations state that they can push a plate of metal (called a flyer in this situation) up to a third of their detonation velocity, so 2.3 to 3.3 km/s. The UTIAS explosive-drive implosion of a hemispherical chamber. However, some ignition schemes get around this by concentrating the energy of the high explosive shockwaves in some manner. This was demonstrated by using a Voitenko compressor to send a shockwave into a hemispherical chamber filled with deuterium gas. Fusion neutron were successfully produced and detected. The theoretically simple collapsing spherical chamber. Even more effective (in theory) is use explosives to surround a 1m wide sphere of metal and get it to implode into a tiny 0.1 cm-sized volume. This 1000x decrease in volume would bring the initial inward velocity to several thousand km/s and multiply the internal pressure by tens of millions of times, enough to ignite a fusion reaction. Tests have successfully demonstrated 1 MJ-scale detonations imploding metal spheres and hemispheres and causing some fusion reactions to occur. However, they used 20 cm wide spheres and tried to explain how scaling up their designs will not provide much improvement. Rayleigh-Taylor instabilities forming. The tiniest imperfections in the sphere or the explosive would be magnified as the sphere’s size decreases and would cause the compression to fail. Rayleigh–Taylor instabilities would also cause the smooth surface of the metal sphere to bubble over into a turbulent storm that isn’t very effective at compression fusion fuel. Mitigating these imperfections involves scaling up the sphere to tens of meters in width, and therefore surrounding it with thousands of tons of HE. Not a great solution either. Instead, what we could do is perform a more moderate implosion, and then convert the energy into another form that can do more work on compressing the fusion fuel. Two methods are documented. Winterberg's magnetic booster concept. The most complicated method involves the use of a ‘magnetic booster’. The metal sphere that the HE will implode is given an electrical current, which produces a magnetic field. The sphere is also filled with low density fusion fuel in the form of a gas and at its center is a special target. The initial implosion takes place at a velocity of 5 to 8 km/s, depending on the initial size of the metal sphere. Near the end, the walls are closing in at over 20 km/s. This is enough to raise the temperature within the fuel gas to millions of Kelvin. Not enough for ignition, but enough to get the special target to work. The implosion also multiplies the initial magnetic field into something of massive strength. A diagram of this mag-booster concept. The special target is the magnetic booster and a fuel pellet surrounded by ablative material in a small closed chamber next to it. The magnetic booster is a Z-pinch device, basically a number of coils connected to a capacitor and surrounding a conductive tube. The circuit is open, so there is no electrical current. At the final stage of the metal sphere’s implosion, the circuit is closed. Current runs through the coils and creates a small magnetic field. This does nothing on its own, but it does react to the massively strong magnetic field that surrounds it. The interaction of the fields causes a similarly massive electrical current to start running through the conductive tube. This causes the Z-pinch effect, which exerts enormous pressure on the tube and causes it to collapse. This collapse causes the remains of the tube to radiate heat. This comes in the form of energetic UV and X-rays. Penetrating radiation digs into the adjacent chamber that has held the fuel pellet safe so far. The ablative layer surrounding the fuel pellet vaporizes. The reaction force of the vaporized gases forces the fuel pellet inwards, in turn bringing it to fusion ignition conditions. You may have noticed the similarities between this ‘magnetic booster’ and the steps taken by the Teller-Ulam design of a thermonuclear warhead to turn the energy released by a fission primary into X-rays that then cause a fusion secondary to implode and ignite. The ignition of the tiny fuel pellet raises the temperature of all the gases compressed within the metal sphere. It creates a much larger fusion reaction, which could then be used to ignite even larger quantities of fusion fuel… if we were not tired yet of the great complexity and number of steps involved so far. The complete propulsion system. Winterburg gives us some estimates for the performance of this pure fusion device. It would be a 20 cm wide metal sphere, about a millimeter thick and weighing 40 kg, surrounded by a 10 cm thick layer of HE. The explosive is assumed to be Octol, which has a density of 1700 kg/m^3 and an energy density of 5.3 MJ/kg. This layer is itself contained inside a 10 cm thick iron sphere (the tamper) that weighs 800 kg. The iron is the single biggest contributor to the device’s mass. Its job is to contain the 70 MJ high explosive detonation for a maximally efficient implosion. The total mass of the device is 853 kg, rounded up to 1000 kg by Winterberg. The fusion reaction within it releases 400 GJ of energy. Most of it is in the form of neutrons, but the iron sphere does an excellent job at absorbing them all. We can call it the Magnetic Booster Implosion Fusion device or MBIF. Here is the summary: Winterberg MBIF Total mass: 1000 kg Tamper mass: 800 kg HE mass: 53 kg HE energy: 70 MJ DT fuel: 2.53 grams DT burnup: 50% Fusion output: 400 GJ Average energy density: 400 MJ/kg This is an incredible performance, blowing away even the best assumptions for the Advanced EMG-MTF. We can attribute this to the much larger quantity of fuel that gets heated to ignition conditions and the elimination of the heavy flux-generator equipment. Still, this is nowhere near the power of a conventional nuclear warhead. A Winterberg pure fusion design, this time relying on compressed 'super-explosives'. Winterberg’s original conception of a ‘mini-nuke’ had a metal sphere collapsing to the point where it radiates in the X-ray wavelengths and causes another ablative stage to compress fusion fuel to the point of ignition, without the need for a complex ‘magnetic booster’. It might reduce the number of steps needed to achieve fusion, at the cost of tightened tolerances on how smooth the metal sphere is and how evenly the HE detonates. These advantages would be seen during the manufacturing stage and not in the actual performance. Another method attempts to improve on the design offered by Winterberg but combining it with more recent techniques. Finn van Donkelaar suggests that a staged HE accelerator using overdriven detonations can do away with the imploding spheres and heavy iron tamper. It is a less rigorous treatment of the topic, but it does have some interesting figures to offer. There are four steps: acceleration of metal plates (flyers), piston-compression of deuterium-tritium gas followed by a spherical implosion, and finally a fuel pellet surrounded by ablative material that undergoes the final compression. The same principles as those for creating EFPs are used here. The HE is separated into disks lined up behind metal plates (called flyers). The first HE stage is ignited and it pushes a flyer to 3 km/s. This flyer hits the back of the second stage, creating a shockwave. This second stage adds its own velocity to its own flyer, allowing for flyer velocities greater than what is possible with a single stage - a solution very similar to one adopted by rockets to overcome the deltaV limitations of a single stage. Explosives act differently when compressed due to a shockwave. The shockwave has an additional effect. It causes a sudden compression of the material it passes through. Compressed matter has a higher density and therefore a greater speed of sound. The compression also causes the chemical composition to ignite. Theoretically, the travelling wave will pick up more energy from this combustion, causing it to compress more HE even harder, which again increases the speed of sound and allows it to reach higher velocities. The result is an 'overdriven' detonation velocity superior to the ordinary uncompressed detonation velocity. The combined effects of staging and overdriven explosion velocity would allow flyer plates to achieve 8-12 km/s. The final flyer hits a converging section that focuses its energy on a ‘cup’. That cup acts like a piston travelling down a tube that contains DT gas before meeting a ‘bowl’. The temperature at this point has increased to 9500 K. The cup and bowl then meet to form a sphere that undergoes its own implosion that forces the fusion fuel into a volume a thousand times smaller. Temperatures reach millions of Kelvin, providing the X-ray radiation needed to make the surface of the fuel pellet surrounded by ablative material explode and finally achieve ignition. The fusion reaction in the fuel pellet provides the spark that gets the rest of the fuel gas to react. We have some performance figures, but with few details. A scaled up device would mass 1600 kg in total, have a length of 2.5m and a width of 0.4m, and yield an output of 8,368,000 MJ. Energy density is 5,230 MJ/kg. The amount of fusion fuel consumed is between 50 and 100 grams, depending on assumptions about burnup ratio. We can call it the Staged Overdriven Accelerator Fusion device. SOAF device Total mass: 1600 kg DT fuel: 50 grams DT burnup: 50% Fusion output: 8.37 TJ Average energy density: 5.23 GJ/kg This performance figure is ridiculously high, and it speaks to the true potential of fusion technology. And yet, it is about 1900 times weaker than a thermonuclear warhead. Other ways to spark the fire There are even more ways to get fusion reactions without needing any fissile material or heavy equipment. They are, however, even more speculative. A SMES device using niobium-tin coils. One example is to use Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) devices. SMESs pushed to the limits of the tensile strength of the materials holding them together can manage impressive energy densities. The quenching process allows them to release their stored energy nearly instantaneously too. Using the maximum strength-to-weight ratio of modern mass-produced materials, such as the 7 GPa strength at 1790 kg/m^3 density of Toray T1100G carbon fibers, would be able to store 3.9 MJ/kg. This is less energy than the 5 MJ/kg of dense explosives like RDX. However, SMES output their energy in the form of electricity, allowing it to be converted into magnetic energy with near-perfect efficiency, and at extremely rapid rates. They also greatly reduce the mass of copper conductors and various magnetic coils needed as they can pass huge currents through small wires (assuming the wires are also superconductors). In effect, 1 kg of Toray 1100G-backed SMES is worth 1.4 to 3.1 kg of HE due to increased efficiency. It would be even better in practice as SMES do not need to explode or push against something to operate (so no need for a heavy tamper), so they can allow for even greater mass savings. At their best, SMES backed by more advanced materials, such as carbon nanomaterials, could exceed 50 MJ/kg while retaining the efficiency benefits over HE. Superconducting materials applied to other parts of an explosive flux generator could result in the following device: SMES-EMG-MTF Total mass: 200 kg SMES mass: 100 kg SMES energy: 5000 MJ SMES-to-magnetic efficiency: 99% Magnetic energy: 4950 MJ Magnetic-to-kinetic efficiency: 80% Liner kinetic energy: 3960 MJ DT fuel: 2.83 grams DT burnup: 33% Fusion output: 320 GJ Average energy density: 1.6 GJ/kg This would bring it more in line with the performance of the staged HE accelerator. Of course, applying SMES technology to the SOAF device itself would bring performance to an even greater level. Simulation of a shear-flow-stabilized Z-pinch, one of the most promising approaches. There are even more ways to use the energy of a large explosion. The flux generators could exploit their ability to produce electrical currents in the hundreds of mega-amperes to drive a large Z-pinch. This could be used to directly compress a metal liner around a fuel pellet, as in the HOPE Fusion propulsion approach (an MTF version was also designed). In that design, 333 MJ is delivered to the specially shaped fuel target, and in return, 1 GJ of fusion energy is released. This energy gain ratio of just 3x is too slim to work with HE, but an improved concept could allow it. An explosive-driven railgun. Or, the electrical current could be used to power a short but extremely high acceleration electromagnetic gun. It would be connected by long wires to the EMG so the debris from its remains do not damage the accelerator. Whether it is a coilgun or a railgun, a projectile velocity of 20 km/s could be achieved before the current falls off. This is enough to start the multi-staged compression cycle proposed here for low velocity fusion ignition. It would be even easier to use the electrical discharge from SMES, although that raises the difficult question between throwing away empty SMES or installing the equipment to recharge them. The Wilderness Orion The application that stands out the most for these pure fusion devices is in the domain of space propulsion. A pure fusion device could be used to create a large plasma explosion. A magnetic nozzle or pusher plate could be used to turn that fusion energy into thrust, similarly to the various nuclear pulse propulsion designs. To estimate the performance of these devices as rockets, we use the method described in a previous blog post. This equation is most useful: Plasma RMS velocity = (2 * Energy Density)^0.5 Plasma RMS (Root Mean Square) velocity is in m/s. Energy density is in J/kg We can turn this into an exhaust velocity by including an efficiency figure for how good a nozzle is at turning an expanding plasma into an exhaust stream. Exhaust velocity = Nozzle efficiency * (2 * Energy Density)^0.5 Exhaust velocity is in m/s. Nozzle efficiency is a ratio. We’ll use 90% (0.9) for the following calculations. Energy density is in J/kg The energy density we use here is that of the entire device. This is because we must assume that the fusion reaction and its X-rays, charged particles, neutrons and other products are all fully absorbed into the device’s mass and converted into heat. For the Early EMG-MTF design, we get Energy Density = 1,570,000 J/kg. With a nozzle efficiency of 90%, we calculate an exhaust velocity of 1594 m/s. That’s a specific impulse (Isp, or exhaust velocity divided by 9.81) of 162 seconds, which is worse than most cold gas thrusters. No spaceship is going to bother with that. The Advanced EMG-MTF and its 33.66 MJ/kg is much more interesting. We calculate an exhaust velocity of 7384 m/s. That’s an Isp of 752s. This is better than any chemical thruster and comparable to a low performance solid-core nuclear thermal rocket or a solar thermal thruster restricted by poor materials. The Winterberg MBIF manages 400 MJ/kg. That results in an exhaust velocity of 25,455 m/s. An Isp of nearly 2600s is better than most high-thrust electric thrusters and is only matched by advanced gas-core nuclear rockets. Performance reaches another level once energy density is measured in GJ/kg. The SMES-EMG-MTF would get us 5,200s Isp and the SOAF design manages an even higher 9.400s. Even the most advanced electric thruster would struggle to meet this performance level. For the higher specific impulses, you would want a magnetic nozzle to handle the plasma, as shown in this beautiful piece by Seth Pritchard. This is not to say that high specific impulse is the only thing to aim for. Like other forms of nuclear pulse propulsion, a rocket that drops pure fusion devices into its nozzle also gets very high thrust. More thrust can be delivered by simply sending out these devices to explode more frequently behind the spaceship. All the ignition energy is contained inside the devices, so there is no major rate limit to how often they can be used. Drop a single 1 GJ device per second, and the drive power is 1 GW. Drop ten of them, and it becomes 10 GW. This is most similar to the original Orion design and its Outer Space Treaty-violating nuclear pulse units. The Advanced EMG-MTF dropped at a rate of 1 per second would get you a drive power of 16.8 GW and a thrust (with 90% nozzle efficiency) of 4.1 MegaNewtons. The main interest in these devices is how they free space propulsion from the need to obtain fissile material from Earth, while also providing a level of performance unmatched by chemical or solar energy. Fusion fuels can be found in any patch of ice in the solar system. High explosives are composed of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon and hydrogen. The red-coloured ices on some comets and icy moons is due to organic compounds, as we can see in this Viktus Justinas piece. Various volatiles like ammonia and carbon dioxide can be found on the surfaces of comets or icy moons. It is not a good idea to research exactly how they are made, but turning those raw materials into the H2N2O2 nitroamide building blocks for C3H6N6O6 cannot be more complex than the processes needed to resupply life support systems. A potential obstacle is the need for metals like copper to create conductors and coils. It is the 25th most abundant element in the Solar System, which might not sound like a lot, but you might expect to find 1 kg of copper for every 1724 kg of iron. A metal-rich asteroid like 16 Psyche or 21 Lutetia would contain 10^18 to 10^19 kg of iron. Roughly, we would expect a near-limitless supply of 10^14 to 10^15 kg of copper. Similar ratios would exist on the surfaces of Mars and the Moon. 3D printing and ISRU are key to NASA's future plans. 3D printing of metals and laser cutting of the HE can create the structures needed to implode the fusion fuel. It should be of similar difficulty as printing solar panels, and NASA already considers that a press-to-print process in the near future. This is the origin of the Wilderness adjective: pure fusion devices allow for ‘wilderness refuelling’ or In-Situ Resource Utilization, the same way chemical rockets can manufacture new fuel out of any mass of water they encounter. How would these devices look like on a spaceship? Let’s draft two designs for pulse propulsion spacecraft. The first one, the ‘Mars Circuit’ spaceship, aims to travel from Earth to Mars and back, and the second one, the ‘Saturn Circuit’ spaceship, will jet around the outer Solar System. The Mars Circuit spaceship uses the Advanced EMG-MTF devices. It is a 100 ton spaceship carrying onboard power generation, radiators, life support system, habitation spaces and everything else needed for drifting through interplanetary space. It also has a payload bay that can fit 100 tons. Behind it is a magazine stack of fusion devices. The stack is 35 tons while empty. For a Mars mission, it is filled with 5064 units of half-size (250 kg) versions of the Advanced EMG-MTF devices, totalling 1266 tons. These provide a specific impulse of 753s. Utilizing them is a propulsion system of 108 tons. A USAF Orion with its pulse unit magazines highlighted. This system includes a pusher plate, suspension arms and structural support that can handle 2 MN thrust per pulse. It is directly modelled on the propulsion section of the 10m USAF Orion design (although it would be overbuilt by modern standards). It can drop one pulse unit every 0.8s. Average thrust would be 2.5 MN. Here is the summary for this spaceship: Mars Circuit spaceship Payload: 100 tons Dry mass: 243 tons Propellant mass: 1266 tons Total mass: 1609 tons DeltaV: 11.4 km/s Acceleration: 0.16g (full) to 0.74g (empty) This is not a zippy ship that can just take straight lines to its destination. It does however have enough deltaV to complete fast 120 day trips to Mars. It curves out of Low Earth Orbit and gently slows down into an orbit around Mars, without aerobraking. All neutrons are absorbed within the EMG-MTF units so this is not a radioactive hazard to its surroundings and won’t be ‘hot’ after use. It can directly approach space stations or other spacecraft, like the vehicles that will take the payload down to the Martian surface. Fresh pulse units can be manufactured entirely out of the resources available from the moons Phobos and Deimos. Within the 1266 tons of propellant, there would only be 37.8 grams of fusion fuel. The Saturn Circuit spaceship is much larger and goes much faster by exploiting the power of SMES-EMG-MTF devices. It has 500 tons of onboard equipment, which include comfortable living spaces and a fully self-contained manufacturing facility. Payload capacity is 100 tons. Its magazine stack is filled with 100 kg pure fusion devices that contain 0.566 grams of fusion fuel and output 63.5 GJ thanks to SMES technology that stores 10 MJ/kg. Each unit provides a specific impulse of 3632s and a thrust of 3.56 MN. The average temperature of the plasma created by the use of each fusion device is 600,000 K. The Mini-Mag Orion. This allows it to be harnessed by a magnetic nozzle at the rear of the spaceship. A 40 ton propulsion system (based on that of the Mini-Mag Orion) drops a total of 20,000 of these units at a rate of 1 per second. Here is the summary for this spaceship: Saturn Circuit spaceship Payload: 100 tons Dry mass: 560 tons Propellant mass: 2000 tons Total mass: 2660 tons DeltaV: 49.6 km/s Acceleration: 0.14g (full) to 0.55g (empty) This spaceship can really build up speed. Starting in Low Earth Orbit, it stops at Mars in 38 days, orbits Jupiter after 6 months or gets to Saturn in 1 year. It is not the fastest craft conceivable at that technology level, but it can be relied upon to connect the furthest planets without any initial infrastructure or external support. Even its longest trips are short enough that the 12 year half-life of tritium is not really a concern. It does all this using just 11.3 kg of fusion fuel so carrying an excess isn’t difficult. At 3632s Isp and technically unlimited thrust, made possible by detonating pulse units more frequently or just using larger plasma explosions, there is a clear opening for high performance spacecraft with military potential. The Orion Battleship, a 4000 ton design equipped with 20 Megaton nuclear missiles and naval guns. The combination of wilderness refueling and high performance makes wandering fleets, or more likely pirates, a realistic possibility. Stealth also becomes more effective if you do not need to heat up a nuclear reactor or ignite a fusion core to start maneuvering. Superbombs It is obvious that pure fusion devices have a real potential as weapons. But by now, we hope that the numbers we have arrived at make it clear that they have nowhere near the destructive potential of existing nuclear warheads. They are thousands to hundreds of thousands of times weaker than a thermonuclear device initiated by a fission primary. An F-35A testing the deployment of a B61 thermonuclear bomb. A B61 nuclear bomb with a yield of 300 kilotons of TNT can easily be carried by any aircraft with a hardpoint capable of more than 324 kg. Matching its performance with the wildest SOAF design would mean a warhead with a mass of 235 tons. It would barely fit inside the payload limits of the An-225, the largest cargo plane in the world. Using the Early EMG-MTF design would require 800,000 tons to reach that yield. That’s closer to the weight of all the US Navy’s nuclear aircraft carriers… combined! The destructive radius of a 2000 lb bombs. It does not mean that there would be no consequences to the development of pure fusion devices. A plausible design with an energy density of 30 MJ/kg would be six times more powerful than simple HE. Real weapons are about 40% to 60% filled with HE, so it is practically a 12x increase in destructive potential. It would be a ‘superbomb’. By another comparison, the effect of a 907 kg (2000 lb) bomb could be matched by that of a 75 kg (165 lb) pure fusion device. Warfare at the tactical scale has already known a significant shift in the effectiveness of bombs with the introduction of precision guidance systems. It allows large and bulky loads, like a Vietnam-era B-52D Stratofortress bay filled with 66 of the US Air Force’s 340 kg (750 lbs) bombs, to replaced by a precision strike by a JDAM-equipped GBU-12 at 227 kg (1000 lbs), of which fighter jets can carry several. A Super Hornet with a full bomb loadout. Superbombs would cause another change in loadouts. The F/A-18 Super Hornet could be carrying 3600 kg of bombs and 1800 kg fuel for a long range strike mission. It would rely on other aircraft to protect it with their air-to-air missiles, and yet more to guide its munitions using equipment like Litening pods. With 30 MJ/kg Superbombs, its loadout could instead be 360 kg of bombs, 1800 kg of fuel and 3240 kg distributed between missiles, electronic warfare equipment, targeting pods or even more fuel. A single fighter could replace an entire squadron. It might even be able to hide its bombs inside internal bays to be able to maintain a stealthy outline, like an F-35B, while delivering the same power as an F/A-18 bristling with weapons. An MQ-9 Reaper drone equipped with precision-guided Mk 82 bombs. Or, the expensive jets could be replaced by small drones, each only having to hold a few hundred kg of munitions. Pure fusion devices would make delivering destruction to far away targets even cheaper and easier. A side-effect of the development of pure fusion devices is the access to ‘neutron bombs’. These are weapons that intentionally leak the radiation produced by the fusion reaction instead of trying to absorb it to maximize the amount of energy that becomes heat. The intention is to deal a lethal effect via penetrating radiation out to a further radius than the blast effect can manage. The Early EMG-MTF device with its 2.52 GJ output would have a blast radius of 36 meters. An Advanced EMG-MTF yielding 16.8 GJ increases this radius to 68m. If these were converted into neutron bombs, they would deliver a lethal dose of radiation out to 272 meters and 512 meters respectively. It is enough to depopulate multiple entire city blocks. These radii are only reduced by about 50% when concrete walls stand in the way. Another consequence is that tank armor becomes much less useful. Today, a nuclear warhead that can kill a tank crew by radiation has to be close enough to destroy the tank itself by blast effect anyway. In this case, a near miss with a small superbomb is enough to deliver a lethal dose. It is unlikely that the neutron effect can be scaled up to many kilometers (which would empty an entire city center with one hit) as air absorbs and scatters the neutrons after some distance, but it is still enough to create a frightening change of priorities during battle. An invading force could hit populated areas with neutron bombs and rid them of any inhabitants, whether they are innocent civilians or potential defenders. They could then move in and easily hold it. No siege involved, no prolonged cries of the oppressed on social media and news channels. Just a single action that hands an entire city and its economic value, infrastructure and factories, mostly undamaged. Offensive actions would be immensely profitable. Defenders would have to pay an even higher price for letting any missile through their defenses. The general result would be a gradual evolution of the state of warfare. Nothing as drastic as the invention of the nuclear weapon, far from disrupting the balance between nuclear-armed states, and not worthy of proliferation fears. Significant enough however to change what military planners worry about or aim for. Conclusion Pure fusion devices are still a thing of the future. But, we must start considering the potential consequences of their development today. If their arrival is expected and regulated, we could open up human exploration of the Solar System like never before with spaceships untied from the rest of civilization for years. But if we are unprepared, or we dismiss their potential effectiveness, then we could end up with yet another shift of warfare towards greater destruction at lower cost.

[a part mod inspired by Luna, Venera, Insight, Sojourner, Curiosity, plus some convenience stuff] Introduction Hi there, space-traveler! Don't just stand there; come in, look around, try out our classic hot-pants - the originals, the best, famous around the solar system! And, welcome to... Aah, more interested in rocket parts, aye? Well, no matter, we got that too. As of now, our line-up consists of just two manufacturers of very essential cosmos equipment. Martin & The Probes The up-town start-up company Martin & The Probes was funded by the income gained from the chart-topping hipster band with the same name. They focus on neat stuff for your everyday probe needs. RB-1 Spherical Probe Container (1.25m non-atmospheric lander) This product has been called the flag ship of M&TP, at least by their commercial department! This very handy spherical container protects your important scientific equipment, that someone is paying for you to bring to some place despite every scientific opportunity there having been exhausted already! Crash tolerant, comes with internal batteries and is like totally round - you'd be crazy not to buy it! RB-2 Reentry sphere (1.875m atmospheric lander) Land your probes in style with this heat resistant thingamabob! Made from the finest plastic composites on the planet. Well, on a planet. RB-4 Space Container (3.75m space or lander fairing) This positively large deployable fairing is a great fit whenever you need to send way too much sensitive equipment to space. Comes with an extra bottle of spray paint! Thermal Fairing (3.75m top cover for heat shield) Land in style on distant planets using the latest in cone-based technology! AID-X1 (0.625m decoupler) Ever wanted to put a non-stackable item on both the top and bottom of your probe? Fret no more - the Advanced Interstage Decoupler is here you help you! AID-X2 (1.5m decoupler) The larger version of the interstage decoupler lets you stack even bigger non-stackable things together! Astro Composites International Here at ACI we believe space is 20% science and 80% fashion! We focus on structural rigid components for your spectacular rocketry moments! Lightweight Hex Platform (2.5m inner diameter - probe lander platform) Sometimes, building probes vertically doesn't really cut it - spruce things up with this amazing probe platform, which comes with integrated holes! Hex Struct (1.25m - structural building block) No-one is really sure what this is intended for, so we usually just store our designer wellies in it. The top can be removed, but only by our senior engineers. Review Download Download from CKAN (RocketEmporium) or grab it from here. Dependencies Some parts (the robotic ones) are fully dependent on AnimatedAttachment to do anything useful. Many more will benefit greatly from it being installed. It will allow you to attach solar panels on the probe containers, for example. Known issues * The view from the cameras doesn't contain all effects, like atmosphere. Compatibility No known issues with any 1.4.x version. Has not been tested with earlier versions. Change log License Published under Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International Public License. Credits Thanks to @Atubara for the awesome artwork in the top =) Visit https://www.reddit.com/r/kerbalculture/ for more great fan-art!

A few days ago I reinstalled KSP and started a new science save This is its story So, this is a mostly stock playthrough (more on that later), with both DLCs. Last time I seriously played KSP I managed a Duna round trip, so I want to at least match that with this one. So far in this save I've done basic starter flights, launched Jeb into interplanetary space, landed a Munbase, done a Minmus landing, and scanned Kerbin's moons. So now current stuff. And that's where things stand now.

RELEASE Translators Wanted specific question - does it work with 1.12.3? Download on Curseforge, Github or SpaceDock. Available on CKAN. Biomatic This is the new thread. Original thread here. A utility to allow easier science gathering in orbit, by automatically de-warping when entering a biome which hasn't been listed. . Simple biome identification, notification, tracking, and warp stopping. adopted by @zer0Kerbal — originally by @Biff Space The Biomatic sensor identifies the biome that the ship is in / above, and shows the information in a small text window. Optionally the ship's situation (high / low space, high / low flight, landed, splashed) can be shown as well. Biomes where science has been done can be added to a list, which is used together with a kill warp option to de-warp the ship when entering an un-listed biome. The list of biomes can be per-vessel, or global. It is integrated with the stock toolbar by default, but can be configured to use blizzy's. (Change 'stock' to 'blizzy' in the config file). The Biomatic Part The Biomatic part is found under the science tab. In career or science mode, it is found in the 'Space Exploration' node of the tech tree - this must be researched before Biomatic will work, either as a part or as a Module Manager add-on to command pods. Module Manager Patch(es) adds Biomatic to any command module or probe core [OPTIONAL] makes Start the techRequired for the Biomatic part Dependencies Kerbal Space Program Module Manager ToolbarController ClickThroughBlocker Suggests Toolbar (Blizzy's) Installation The Biomatic folder needs to be unzipped and put in your KSP\GameData folder: Feedback Any comments and suggestions for improvements are welcome, as are reports of bugs / problems - please let me know what you think. Licence Biomatic, its associated files and the source code are all released under the GPLv3 license, text here: http://www.gnu.org/licenses/gpl.txt. Original: Be Kind: Lithobrake, not jakebrake! Keep your Module Manager up to date Thank you to @tinygrox for pushing the localization code! v1.3.2.0 original: 11 Aug 2018 0K updated: 02 Feb 2020 zed'K Source: GitHub License: http://www.gnu.org/licenses/gpl.txt.

(Formerly KA-330 and KEAM) Welcome to the release thread for Kerbalow Aerospace's inflatable / expandable modules parts pack! Please feel free to leave any comments, questions or suggestions you may have for this project. KEAM Features: 4x Unique Science Experiments Distributed Impact Detection System Deployment Dynamic Sensors Wireless Temperature Sensors Radiation Environment Monitor Kerbal Inventory System Storage Space Compatibility Connected Living Space Compatibility Tweakscale Compatibility KA-330 Features: Inflatable / Expandable module Sun-tracking solar panels Functioning expanding radiators Functioning lights IVA interior cut-out view Fully furnished interior when using Near-Future Prop Flat ends for attaching any 1.25 meter docking ports KA-330 Compatibility Patches: Tweakscale Connected Living Space Kerbal Inventory / Attachment System PBR texture (reflections) patch - This is a test / demonstration / incomplete KA-330 Life Support Compatibility: With USI Life Support: Acts as a functioning habitat With Snacks: Stores snacks / soil With Keep-Fit: Is a "COMFY" room With TACLS: Contains standard life support resources Kerbalow Aerospace is 100% Dependent upon Textures Unlimited by @Shadowmage Installation: Extract the contents of the GameData folder to your GameData folder. Structure should then read GameData\Kerbalow Optional KA-330 Compatibility and Life Support Configs Installation: Copy the config files from the Optional Configs folder to GameData\Kerbalow Download Download A VERY SPECIAL THANK YOU TO: @CobaltWolf, @Nertea, @Shadowmage @Beale @Pak @steedcrugeon Kerbalow Aerospace is License CC-BY-4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

What I mean is more experiments rn I'm thinking of one antimatter collector it's late game and it takes a lot of energy to power it. One experiment is observe and the text is "You have a strong urge to put it in your mouth but your crewmate / mission control says not to, stupid crewmate / mission control." Another one is annihilate which generates 100 electricity or something and the text says "The defence department wants us back home they say they're gonna put the material in a bullet" what's your ideas I'd love to see them.

Life On Laythe science mission Premise: Life has been detected in the deep oceans of Laythe. Mission: Launch a science mission to Laythe, and return science data from the floor of the DeGrasse Sea. This challenge is based loosely on the movie Astronaut : The Last Push. Rules: The Science data must be the results of a Mystery Goo experiment collected from the sea floor (not the surface) of the DeGrasse Sea returned to Kerbin and recovered Two kerbals need to go to Laythe and at least one kerbal must land or splash down on Laythe’s surface The kerbals must launch from the KSC, and both must return alive to the surface of Kerbin for recovery No command chairs are allowed. The kerbals must reside in pressurized seats during interplanetary and atmospheric flight. The use of stock probe cores is allowed where it fits within the challenge guidelines. No ISRU is allowed. The launched craft(s) must have all the fuel for the journey to and from Laythe Clipping is not allowed, and all parts must be adjacent to another part. If you want to clip, and you think it is fair, ask me. Stock parts with DLC only. Mods that affect parts or game physics are not allowed. Cheats - Hyperedit, F-12 , file editing etc are not allowed Informational, flight control and visual mods are allowed (e.g. MechJeb, KER, Trajectories, Precise Node etc) Settings must be default, normal. Entry reheating must be set to 100%. If you change default settings, you are breaking this rule. Mission must be completed in less than 13 years from launch date Submission: The mission will be listed in order of submission. Please provide an Imgur gallery with detailed explanation, or a video. This should include an image showing science recovery from the Laythe seafloor, with the resource window open. This challenge is all about good reliable design, mission planning and game play. The following may provide a guide. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hZIe2fWK85s https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OiMW4Qtoj2g Special mentions for low cost entries. Any questions, feel free to ask. Good luck. Completed entries: @camacju16750 funds, ultra low cost entry . Amazing orbital mechanics! Uses EVA and jet packs and V1.11 EVA Construction to reduce costs @Brikoleur Zoë. A big SSTO seaplane lands two Kerbals on Laythe. Gotta love the hydroplanes and the cool Laythe probe. @Brikoleur Bak Billbo. A bigger SSTO seaplane with massive dV, single stage from Kerbin to a Laythe sea landing and back to Kerbin. @jinnantonixLife One. [video] Replicates the artificial gravity system and the space craft design used in the video Astronaut: The Last Push. @Death Engineering Apollo to Laythe - McDonnell Douglas Phase B 12-Man Space Station Launch. In DE's own words, incorporates some of the more far-out NASA concepts from the early 1970's, mixed in with a healthy dose of just plain Kerbalistic nonsense. Brilliant. . .

Hello everyone! So I recently had this idea to send a small satellite with science equipment, then store that science in an Experiment Storage Unit and drop it down to Kerbin to be recovered. Inside the heat shields are 6 Drogue parachutes to safely recover it. (Inside the VAB) (Entering the atmosphere) (Splashing down!) In total I got about 646 units of science. Which was more than enough for me to finally research ion propulsion. I hope you enjoyed reading this post and maybe got inspired to do something similar on your own!