Stratzenblitz75

Duna System completed! Obviously, its been too long since the last kraken attack so its about time to experience the lovely "docking ports won't undock" bug again... (see Part 3: Ike landing) Episode 4: Duna System Part 1: Arrival Part 2: Duna Landing Part 3: Ike Landing

Well I wouldn't be so quick to call it the ugliest lander in existence, you haven't seen my Duna lander yet

Moho segment completed! Since Moho is just a planet sitting by itself (in perhaps the most inconvenient orbit possible), I've uploaded all the images from the segment into one album. Episode 3: Moho

Thanks for clarifying your stance on this issue. I'm glad that my fix for this strange bug hasn't disqualified me from the challenge . Lets just hope it doesn't happen again... I kinda want my equipment to not be tangled in quantum connections .

Hey Ziv, In my most recent episode of the Outer Wilds mission, my Eve lander suffered a severe kraken attack. Basically the Eve lander's command chair module, despite being attached to central fuel tank hard point in the VAB, somehow got attached to one of the asparagus stages by a strange "phantom link". Therefore, when I stage the lander, this phantom connection tears the command chair off the central core, and takes it down with the spent stage. Obviously, this bug makes the otherwise perfectly capable Eve lander unusable and unfortunately, quick loading does not fix it. So, I employed the use of Hyperedit to cheat an exact copy of the Eve lander (with the attachment bug fixed) over to the original lander. Then, I disposed of the original and continued with the mission. My question is, does this act of cheating, even if it was used to workaround a BS bug, invalidate my mission from being eligible in the Jool-5 challenge?

Sorry this episode is coming out a bit late. Real life has been getting in the way of my KSP. In addition, The Eve system was a difficult and lengthy segment full of inclination changes, a kraken attack, and driving. Lots and lots of driving. Also, I'm trying out a new format for my Imgur albums. Instead of uploading all my images into one large Imgur album for each planetary system, I'm organizing them into multiple albums with each album being dedicated to a certain segment of the mission. For example, the GPL V3 Gilly landing. The reason I'm doing this is the fact that I jump around a lot when I'm doing the mission. For example, I'll fix the Nomad's inclination, then I'll jump to the Eve lander, then I'll perform a Gilly encounter correction burn with the GPL and so on an so forth. Let me know what you think of this format! But, without further ado, here's episode two! Episode 2: The Eve system Segment 1: Arrival Segment 2: Eve landing Segment 3: Gilly landing

Episode one: Mun and Minmus segment down, featuring gravity assists!

Actually, Jool's lower atmosphere begins at 120 Km which isn't that low. In fact, my engine core 1 combined with the crew module and parachute module is enough to dip down into a suborbital trajectory, gather science, and return to Laythe with fuel to spare. If I have any extra fuel by the time I get to Jool, I'll definitely be attempting this .

Thank you for the kind words! Your Jool-5 challenge is what inspired me to even do a grand tour in the first place so to have you recognize my mission means a lot to me. That being said, the Sigma Mission will not be my last entry to this challenge. I am currently working on another grand tour but this time I will gather science along the way. When its finished, I hope to enter it as a Jebediah's level entry. If anyone's interested, you can read about it here.

Greetings! Before I begin I'd like to thank Himynameisjake and his grand tour for inspiring me to do this mission. If it weren't for him, I'd still be here thinking its impossible. At a glance: I built a 98.5 ton vessel (the Nomad), launched it into LKO, and sent it on a grand tour of the Kerbol System. The main vessel performed flybys of every celestial body in the Kerbol System, while the 5 Kerbals on board took turns landing on all the solid celestial bodies (every celestial body except Jool and Kerbol). In addition, I brought science experiments with me and used them to gather almost every possible science report from outside the Kerbin System. (I only missed 13 reports, 4 from Jool's atmosphere, and 9 crew reports from the surface of the airless worlds). The trip took 33 years and gathered 42981 science points which I returned to Kerbin safely in a mobile processing lab. Introduction: The premise of the Outer Wilds mission is to land on every celestial body in the Kerbol System and gather as much science as possible along the way without refueling/restocking supplies. I also want to qualify for the Jool-5 Challenge Jebediah's Level so I'm taking 5 Kerbals with me, I'm not transmitting any data and I am returning a mobile science lab back to the surface of Kerbin. Planning the mission: Mods used: Kerbal Engineer Redux Time Control TAC Fuel Balancer Precise Node In preparation for the mission I started up a new career save and "simulated" grinding Kerbin, the Mun and Minmus for science to fill out the tech tree (Yes, I cheated, I have better things to do than spam the Mun and Minmus for science). As a result, I'll be restricting myself to performing science only on the surface of one biome on each of Kerbin's moons and I will not be performing any science on Kerbin or the space around Kerbin. With that said, I will try to get every possible science report from outside the Kerbin system (except maybe Jool). That means all the crew reports, Eva reports, gravity scans, seismic scans, temperature readings, barometer readings, atmosphere analysis, mystery goo observations and science lab observations from Moho, Eve, Gilly, Duna, Ike, Dres, Laythe, Vall, Tylo, Bop, Pol, Eeloo and Kerbol. In addition, I will receive all the science bonus points from returning a craft from orbit and the surface of every celestial body in the Kerbol System. To take on this task I've constructed a ship I've dubbed, "The Nomad". Here are its stats. The Nomad: Pic: https://www.dropbox.com/s/e00vo8tdaktyskb/2014-06-09_00001.jpg Description: My vehicle of the stars, The Nomad is capable of performing flybys of every celestial body in the Kerbol System and carries a variety of both disposable and reusable equipment to gather as much science as possible during its journeys. Stats: Mass (Kg): 98522 (less than 100 tons) Dry Mass (Kg): 27927 (This isn't factoring in the dry mass of disposed equipment) Delta V (m/s): 6823 (This isn't factoring in the dry mass of disposed equipment) Fuel Capacity (LFO units): 14119 As previously mentioned, The Nomad carries a variety of disposable and reusable equipment. Here is a rundown of said equipment: General Purpose Lander V3 (GPL V3): Pic: https://www.dropbox.com/s/mjdl8t3aaeniagn/2014-06-09_00005.jpg Description: Just as the ion lander was the star of the Sigma Mission, the GPL V3 is the star of the Outer Wilds Mission. Much like the ion lander, the GPL V3 will land on most of the celestial bodies in the Kerbol system (In fact, the only planet it is not landing on is Eve). The GPL V3 carries no heavy science equipment, instead it docks with science modules and ferries them to their destination. Consequently, the GPL V3 features a wider landing base than the original GPL to support the weight of the equipment it needs to carry down to the surfaces of each planet. Stats: Mass (Kg): 1976 Dry Mass (Kg): 413 Delta V (m/s): 5379 Fuel Capacity (LFO units): 312.6 ------------------------------ Eve Lander V2: Pic: https://www.dropbox.com/s/v28jke3yku0qock/2014-06-09_00004.jpg Description: The new and improved Eve lander. This pancake of a design features 2 less engines than the first iteration, and therefore, is far less massive. With its detachable wheel base, it is capable of driving from the initial landing site, to a nearby 6800 meter tall equatorial mountain where it can reach orbit. In addition, it carries 4 science labs, 4 goo containers, 1 sensor array nose cone and a command pod to get every possible science point from Eve's atmosphere, surface, and ocean. Stats: Mass (Kg): 13718 Dry Mass (Kg): Delta V (m/s): Fuel Capacity (LFO units): ------------------------------ Engine Cores: Pic: https://www.dropbox.com/s/lz59m8sytyg9671/2014-06-09_00002.jpg, https://www.dropbox.com/s/lz59m8sytyg9671/2014-06-09_00002.jpg Description: These two detachable engine cores power the main ship, and can be undocked to ferry the GPL V3 and other equipment over expensive transfers. One of the engine cores contains more fuel and is designed to be used for a Moho transfer before being disposed whereas the smaller core is to be used for a Tylo transfer and returned to The Nomad. Stats(Engine core 1 / Engine core 2): Mass (Kg): 4520 / 5645 Dry Mass (Kg): 2520 / 2645 Delta V (m/s): 4585 / 5950 Fuel Capacity (LFO units): 400 / 600 ------------------------------ Science Module: Pic: https://www.dropbox.com/s/ktcw81grjigpbhe/2014-06-09_00010.jpg Description: A basic science module. Contains 1 science lab and 1 goo container. For use with the GPL V3. Stats: Mass (Kg): 390 Dry Mass (Kg): 390 Delta V (m/s): 0 Fuel Capacity (LFO units): 0 ------------------------------ Science/LFO Module: Pic: https://www.dropbox.com/s/cuk3bemrjgcpm3b/2014-06-09_00009.jpg Description: A science module with additional fuel. Designed to provide additional Delta V to the GPL V3 for a Tylo landing. Stats: Mass (Kg): 953 Dry Mass (Kg): 453 Delta V (m/s): 0 Fuel Capacity (LFO units): 100 ------------------------------ Parachute Module V3: Pic: https://www.dropbox.com/s/avu7et0ojkh5332/2014-06-09_00008.jpg Description: The parachute Module V3 carries 2 parachutes to assist the GPL V3 on atmosphere hosting worlds. In addition, it carries two science labs, two goo containers, and 1 sensor array nose cone to gather all the possible science points from any given planetary atmosphere. Stats: Mass (Kg): 1020 Dry Mass (Kg): 1020 Delta V (m/s): 0 Fuel Capacity (LFO units): 0 ------------------------------ Mobile Lab: Pic: https://www.dropbox.com/s/q6vye3t062chryo/2014-06-09_00007.jpg Description: A mobile science platform for Laythe. Carries two science labs, two goo containers, and 1 command pod to get every possible science report from Laythe's surface and ocean. Stats: Mass (Kg): 1640 Dry Mass (Kg): 1640 Delta V (m/s): 0 Fuel Capacity (LFO units): 0 ------------------------------ Ion Tug: Pic: https://www.dropbox.com/s/mqhgj9gah9ik6om/2014-06-09_00006.jpg Description: My replacement for RCS, the Ion Tug is designed to ferry equipment around The Nomad. In addition, it carries two 1x6 caseless solar panels to provide power for The Nomad. It is not intended to perform any orbital manuevers. Stats: Mass (Kg): 465 Dry Mass (Kg): 395 Delta V (m/s): 6722 Fuel Capacity (xenon gas units): 700 ------------------------------ Executing the Mission: As of 6/26/2014 the Outer Wilds Mission has been completed with a total of 42981 science points! You can read about my journey below. Liftoff and Orbit:

Yeah it is interesting how my flight plan turned out similarly to yours despite me not having any prior knowledge of your grand tour. However, when you think about it, its not that surprising as the flight plans we used made the most sense. For example, Eve should be the first target in anyone's grand tour as it is the easiest to get to and you get to dump your heavy eve lander early on. Moho is obviously next because its easiest to get to from Eve. Then its off to Duna for aerobraking and then Dres because its easiest to get to from Duna. So on and so forth... Gathering science was a consideration when I started planning the mission, but I ended up not doing it because, at the time, I thought it was impossible to carry all the heavy equipment around. Now I know better I may try to do a grand tour again with science but its unlikely. The stress of one grand tour is enough for me... Anyways, I'm taking a break from KSP in preparation for my realism modded career play-through once 0.24 comes out and all the mods are updated.

I'll second the notation that this challenge is possible without refueling/resupplying. Check out my grand tour for details. Now before I submit my entry, I'd like to give you some suggestions to improve your scoring system. Here's a rundown of the scores that I believe need changing: Why is 5000 science the cap? I can easily get 5000 science points on a grand tour by only gathering surface samples, EVA reports and crew reports. My suggestion is to remove the cap. Also, increase the amount of science points per point. Perhaps 10-20 science points per point? Because, as it stands, science points earn you the majority of the points in the challenge. Therefore, people who do this challenge in sandbox mode are at a significant disadvantage to those who do it in career mode. Science should be a bonus, not a necessity. Is this considering the launch vehicle? If so, this is impossible. If not, this is also impossible. I don't see any conceivable way to keep the part count of this kind of mission that low whether considering the launch vehicle or not. I was trying to be as efficient as possible in my mission and I ended up using 424 parts with the launch vehicle (372 parts without). My suggestion is to remove this score entirely and replace it something that scores the weight of the ship without the launch vehicle. This way, you still reward the player with the smallest ship while removing the (IMHO) BS part restriction. Perhaps award the player if their ship weighs less than 60-100 tons?(for reference, my ship weighs in at 35.44 tons, which is a little less than a Jumbo 64 fuel tank) Can I stick 200 boosters on my launch vehicle and receive a free 200 points? This makes no sense. Either rethink it or remove it. Does exploding debris invalidate this score? Or do only explosions on your ship count? Either way, this score seems kinda unnecessary as your ship is unlikely to damaged during the mission(if you use quick-saves of course). Oh c'mon, this is easy! Reaction wheels are good enough to prevent anything from tipping over on Gilly. Once again, this score seems unnecessary. I'm with jake on this one, doing this kind of mission without quick-saving is almost impossible. Even if you get all the aerobrakes, transfers, and landings right in one go, you still have to pray the Kraken doesn't get you and given the length of mission, it almost certainly will. Remove this score entirely. Now the rules: Why? Mono propellant is far less efficient than rocket fuel. If anything, you are putting yourself at a disadvantage by carrying it. Personally, I don't think this rule is necessary. Landing on every planet in one mission is an impressive achievement, regardless of whether you bring probes or not. Ok that's all my suggestions for now. I hope they are of some use to you!

Thank you for the kind words! I guess my efforts to make this mission as efficient as possible paid off somewhat.

Well for me space planes are hard... I think the largest payload I've ever delivered to LKO using a space plane is less than 4 tons. Considering that I've seen someone deliver 34 tons of cargo to Laythe, this isn't all that impressive. I guess what I meant to say is that I still have a lot to learn in the space plane department... Also, no, I didn't use deadly reentry or any other mods like that for this mission(else Jeb wouldn't have survived the 7 km/s aerobraking at Laythe). However, I have used them before on a previous save where I attempted to play as a more realistic space program. Unfortunately, I had to discontinue that save because of constant crashing caused by all the mods.

Hello, I'd like to enter my Kerbol system grand tour for this challenge: http://forum.kerbalspaceprogram.com/threads/81429-Sigma-Mission-Kerbol-System-Grand-Tour%21 Game version is 0.23.5 It was done in sandbox in one launch and with no refueling. No additional equipment was carried along, just Jeb and his flags. Only 1 mod was used: Kerbal engineer, otherwise it is completely stock.

Wow, this is just simply amazing. I have no words to describe the sheer epicness of this mission. The fact that you landed on every celestial body in the Kerbol system and gathered science in the process is stunning... And all without refueling! Once again, words allude me. Sure as hell puts my little "grand tour" to shame. I'm not even kidding, this is seriously one of the most impressive things I've ever seen in KSP.

Opps... I didn't realize that there was a mission reports section. Thanks for moving the thread, I'll try to post in the correct section next time.

Thanks man! Although, I wouldn't say I've mastered KSP... I'm absolutely terrible at building space planes. To answer your question; No, I never used the ion engine and the LV-N at the same time, or at least I never planned to. Funny thing is, during the Eve transfer, I actually forgot to turn the ion engine off after I docked the ion lander to the supply ship. It's a good thing that I caught my mistake before I burned through all my xenon gas.

Greetings! As this is my first post of any significance, I thought I’d introduce myself: I started playing KSP a little over a year ago and since then have poured over 700 hours into crashing rockets, testing experimental crafts(and crashing them), stranding Kerbals on other planets, and various other “normal†KSP activities. Because of KSP, I am trying to learn more about orbital mechanics and rocketry and in turn, trying to apply this knowledge in game to make my missions more efficient and precise (often with disastrous consequences). While I certainly know a lot more than I have before, I have a long way to go to becoming proficient in this area. The Sigma mission is a direct result of my basic knowledge of orbital mechanics. I hope you enjoy! Mods used: Hyper edit: For testing my various lander designs and for testing how much Delta V it takes to land on and return to orbit from all the planets of the solar system. Kerbal Engineer Redux: For determining the Delta V of a craft without having to do the math myself. Also very handy for it’s in flight information. Otherwise the mission is completely stock. Planning the mission: This mission began as somewhat cliché “grand tour†mission with the idea being to land on every celestial body in the KSP solar system (expect Jool and the sun of course) in one launch. The main reason I wanted to do such a mission in the first place was the fact that even in my 650 or so hours of playtime (before the mission), I had only landed on and returned from 3 celestial bodies: the Mun, Minmus and Duna and I hadn’t even seen Moho, Ike, Gilly, and Tylo. I figured this would be a great way to fill in my KSP checklist of landing on and returning from every planet in the solar system. I named the mission “Sigma Mission†after Sigma notation as I am quite literally “summing up the planetsâ€Â. Now, before 0.23.5 this kind of “grand tour†mission (at least for me) was impossible. There were simply no stock parts that could provide the necessary Delta V to perform all the planetary transfers and landings. The only engine that could do this was the ion engine, and given its very low thrust of 0.5 Kn it would take ages to do anything and likely break your sanity in the process. In addition, it’s not capable of landing a Kerbal on many celestial bodies. However, with the buffed ion engine, this mission becomes much more feasible as now you can use an ion powered vehicle to both perform burns in a timelier manner and to land Kerbals on celestial bodies up to the size of the Mun. With the idea planted in my mind, I designed the various landers and modules I would need for the mission. Here’s what I came up with: Ion Lander: Pic: https://www.dropbox.com/sc/y0k5drmq859az0n/AAAp_M__7Jlb89FTEG-aAtxja The star of the show, the ion lander is a one man ion powered lander designed to land on airless celestial bodies up to the size of the Mun, and to function all the way out to Eeloo. It has 8 1x6 solar panels (without casings) to give it enough solar power to run the ion engine at full power in the outer solar system. To save on mass, there are no landing legs and only 1 docking port. Basically, it’s an ion powered chair. Specs(Factoring in the mass of one Kerbal): Propulsion: 1 PB-ION Electric Propulsion System Fuel capacity: 700 units of xenon gas Delta V: 4253 m/s Mass(Full/Dry): 714/644 kg General Purpose Lander (GPL): Pic: https://www.dropbox.com/sc/74yn180462a0wl9/AAA5uSSKOYpUGXc9Ztg5aitaa For what the ion lander can’t land on, the GPL is chemical rocket powered lander designed to land on both airless and atmosphere hosting celestial bodies up to the size of Tylo. Since it is designed for a Tylo landing, it is over engineered for all the other planets and can land on many of them with less than 100 units of LFO. Similarly to the ion lander, the GPL has no landing legs and only 1 docking port. However, unlike the ion lander, the GPL has a very wide landing base. This is to help with the lander’s high center of mass when its tanks are not full. Specs(Factoring in the mass of one Kerbal): Propulsion: 1 Rockomax 48-7S Fuel capacity: 300 units of LFO Delta V: 4805 m/s Mass(Full/Dry): 1991/491 kg Eve Lander: Pic: https://www.dropbox.com/sc/d1zv1ysdgcx2t6z/AADepwzzQATqK94TtjzuQSNba For what even the GPL can’t land on, the Eve Lander is an asparagus staged pancake tasked with landing on and returning from only one planet: Eve. With 5 stages and 11 engines, it only has enough Delta V to lift off from Eve’s mountains. To ease the stress of landing it precisely on a mountain, the Eve Lander comes with a detachable wheel base that can be used to drive from initial landing site to a nearby mountain. Specs(Factoring in the mass of one Kerbal): Propulsion: 11 Rockomax 48-7S (5 stages) Fuel capacity: 1855 units of LFO Delta V(Given that the wheel base and parachutes have been detached): 9419 m/s Mass(Full/Dry): 13225/346 kg Parachute Module: Pic: https://www.dropbox.com/sc/brcqx5xvi64vh57/AAABGANDLWsRwMlj7uCU4meda Basically, it’s a parachute attached to a docking port. To be used with the GPL to land on atmosphere hosting worlds such as Duna and Laythe, and to be used with the ion lander to return safely to Kerbin once the mission is over. Xenon Gas Tank Module: Pic: https://www.dropbox.com/sc/cyy57g1l3mz3cwr/AAAscUBA0EF5s3NmEGPVbPesa A modular xenon gas tank designed to extend the range of the ion lander. It can be used with the ion lander to ferry the GPL around. Specs: Fuel capacity: 3300 units of xenon gas Supply Ship: Pic: https://www.dropbox.com/sc/3ejt76ul1hojy0u/AACAH2yQWtQdMyBAz5FlPJJha The glue of the mission, the supply ship is designed to ferry equipment between planetary systems, refuel the landers, and to restock Jeb on RCS fuel and flags between segments. Specs: Propulsion: LV-N Atomic Rocket Motor Fuel capacity: 2533 units of LFO(300 units of this are for the GPL) and 6000 units of xenon gas Delta V: 6596 m/s Mass(Full/Dry): 18761/5495 kg The fully assembled Sigma Vessel carries 1 of each of all the above equipment and 3 parachute modules. As you can imagine, this mash of landers and modules is not a pretty sight to behold. Unfortunately, I couldn't go for style points here since I was trying to be as efficient as possible. Pic: https://www.dropbox.com/sc/8f81t8tedwtzjpf/AADD_6-Ng3tXsppcAC9n8vpQa The mass of the fully assembled vessel is 35,440 Kg, which is less than a Jumbo-64 fuel tank. The Flight plan: When designing the flight plan, I had to take the efficiency of each vessel and the fact that I only can carry one flag per segment into consideration. Therefore when it comes to planetary transfers, I want to use the ion lander as much as possible while using the supply ship only where I absolutely have to. For example, it is NOT necessary for the supply ship to transfer to planets without moons such as Moho, Dres, and Eeloo as you only need one flag for each of these planets. On the other hand, it IS necessary to transfer the supply ship to planetary systems such as Duna, Eve, and Jool as you will need more than one flag for each of these systems. Because of this, the supply ship only needs to make three transfers: Kerbin -> Eve -> Duna -> Jool. All the other planets can be handled by the ion lander, the GPL or both. So with this in mind, I constructed a flight plan that included every planet in the solar system. To calculate the Delta V required for planetary transfers, I used this Launch Window Planner, for everything else, I used an excel spreadsheet and a calculator. Now, the flight plan is very “non-linear†so to speak so I created a flow chart to help visualize it. https://www.lucidchart.com/publicSegments/view/53879cc7-c91c-4c57-81a3-61cb0a0090ac As a side note, I used this flow chart to calculate the amount of fuel (both xenon gas and LFO) I’d need to carry in the supply ship(I gave myself a 10% error margin on all of the Delta V stats on the flow chart). Executing the mission: Originally I had a journal detailing every event of mission as well as sharing some of my thoughts along the way. However, due to the nature of the mission, the journal basically became: “I landed here, lifted off, returned to supply ship†rinse and repeat. So instead of boring you all with a giant wall of text, I documented the mission in 225 pictures spread across multiple Imgur albums. Lift off and Kerbin System: Eve System: Moho: Forgot the probe core on the supply ship, rescue time! Duna System: Dres: Jool System: Part 1: Part 2: Part 3: Eeloo: Back to Kerbin: That's all folks, I hope you enjoyed my little trip through the solar system!

Greetings! I built the Shockwave Mk IV a little under a year ago, but it still works just fine. Its basically a land-speeder that can reach high speeds on Kerbin's landscape without crashing(mostly). It uses a bunch of landing gears to absorb the impact caused by driving over hills, bumps, and valleys at high speeds. In addition, it uses winglets to provide downward "lift" to keep the vehicle on the ground. Here are some screenshots(for some reason the screenshots aren't working... For now, I'll just provide the links to them) Shockwave Mk IV driving on the plains just beyond KSC at ~150 m/s Shockwave Mk IV in the SPH If any of you are interested in driving the craft, here is the download link: https://www.dropbox.com/s/k3t8mhqr4stlyck/Shockwave%20MK%20IV.craft User manual: The craft can reach speeds of 150 m/s, but driving at these speeds, especially over rough terrain, may result in unplanned disassembly. If driving on moderately hilly terrain, 100-120 m/s should be safe. If the terrain gets rougher than that, throttle back to 60-90 m/s. And yes, it can also climb mountains/cliffs. Controls: The vehicle has two modes of driving: High-speed mode: Landing gear down Rover mode: Landing gear up Engine toggle: Action key 1 Abort: Backspace And that's all there is to it. Tell me what you guys think about the craft. I'd love to have your opinions on it!

Hello! First time poster to the KSP forums so I hope I'm putting this in the correct place... But anyways, I have a question regarding microwave power: Is there an equation to calculate the efficiency of a receiver given the collector area, and the distance from the transmitter? For example, lets say I have power station in LKO radiating 20 GW of microwave power and a craft with a small receiver(collector area of 0.75 m^2) that is 42,000,000 Km away. If the angle is perfect, and there is no atmosphere, how much power would the craft receive? I've checked the KSP interstellar wiki and skimmed this forum a bit but I couldn't find an equation for this so any help would be greatly appreciated. Thanks in advance.